INTRODUCTION

One of a forensic document examiner’s main purposes is to find and identify changes made to a document after it was originally made. Alterations, which include additions, erasures, obliterations, and page substitutions, can drastically alter the meaning, intent, or value of a document, often with fraudulent intent. Finding these changes is crucial for confirming the document’s validity and integrity, spotting possible fraud, and making sure the document accurately reflects the original intent or transaction. Legal processes benefit greatly from the ability to scientifically identify and describe changes. Forensic document examination’s authenticity and dependability depend on following the set criteria and rules and applying scientifically sound procedures consistently.

DEFINITION

An alteration is any modification that gives a document a different effect than it had before. Fraudulent alteration is the term used to describe any change made after a document has been executed and without the other party’s or concerned person’s consent.

TYPES OF ALTERATIONS:

Forensic document examiners categorize alterations based on the nature of the modification. This categorization provides a useful framework because different types of alterations leave distinct forms of evidence and require specific examination approaches.

1.ADDITION/INSERTION

Addition in the document is defined as the insertion of any word, digit, et, which changes the meaning or value of the document.[3] Writing between the lines (interlineations), adding numbers, adding words or phrases to already-existing text, or adding complete pages (sheet insertion) to a multi-page document are all examples of this. Additions are often made in blank spaces or margins, and the appearance might be cramped (small size) if space is limited or unnaturally spread out (large size) if attempting to fill a larger gap.

Figure 1. Addition of digit

2. ERASURES

Erasure can be anything which is used to remove any writing matter from a writing surface. It is further divided into:

1. Physical/mechanical erasures (Abrasion)
2. Chemical Erasure

Mechanical/Physical Erasure (Abrasion): The process of physically removing writing, impression involves abrasion of the paper’s surface using tools such as rubber, razor, blade, scalpel knife, Emory paper, etc. Mechanical erasure is characterised by the physical disruption or damage caused to the paper fibres in the impacted region.

Chemical Erasure: To decolourise or dissolve the ink and make it invisible, this technique uses chemical agents like solvents or bleaching solutions (such as oxalic acid, sodium hypochlorite, sodium bisulfite, potassium permanganate, or stannous chloride solution). Even when the colour is eliminated, the ink ingredients may remain embedded in the paper fibres, and the chemicals frequently leave behind noticeable residue or change the fibre characteristics of the paper.

Figure 2. Disturbances in paper fibers due to Physical/mechanical erasures(Abrasion)

3. OBLITERATION

Obliteration is the process of using ink, correction fluid, or other materials to obscure or conceal the original text or handwriting in a document. Obliteration is the act of blotting out or discolouring anything so that it cannot be easily or clearly read. They are purposefully obscured or covered with marks to make them unreadable.

Figure 3. Obliteration using correction fluid                       

4. OVERWRITING

This is the process of writing new text or handwriting over the old text, usually using a different pen or ink, to alter the document’s original meaning or content. This method is frequently employed to change dates, sums, or other important information in financial or legal papers, such as to conceal fraudulent activities.

It can be further divided into two parts:

1. Genuine overwriting

These are generally bold, strokes drawn carelessly, and no attempt is made to conceal overwriting.

2. Fraudulent overwriting

This involves carefully altering the document’s content. In this case, the preparator considers matching the dye colour to the original writing instrument and ink when they are unavailable. It appears when words or numbers are altered to increase their worth (for example, 1 to 7, 6 to 60, etc.) or when a writer wants to disguise his/her signature.

Figure 4. detection of overwriting

KEY STEPS IN ALTERATION ANALYSIS

 1. PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION (Naked Eye Inspection)

Objective: Acquire an initial understanding of the document.

Method:

• Visual examination under normal light.
• Identification of tremors, uneven letter spacing, smudging, overwriting, or variations in ink density.
• Make a note of questionable regions for further investigation.

Importance:  This stage provides the examiner with suspicious areas that may require deeper scientific testing

2. MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION (STEREO / COMPARISON MICROSCOPES)

Objective: Find details that are hidden from the naked eye.

Method

• Examine erasures, abrasions, strokes, and disrupted paper fibres
• Check ink flow, pen lifts, retouching, and unnatural writing patterns.

Importance: Reveals pressure variations, overwriting, and minor changes.

3. EXAMINATION OF HANDWRITING TRAITS & STROKE CHARACTERISTICS

Objective: Recognise distinctive handwriting characteristics and identify forgeries.

Method:

• Examine the letters’ slant, rhythm, spacing, and proportion.
• Analyse pen pressure, stroke quality, and beginning and ending strokes.
• Identify disguise, simulation, or tracing attempts.

Importance: Differentiate between authentic handwriting and fakes or traced handwriting/ signatures.

4. SPECTRAL ANALYSIS & INK DIFFERENTIATION

Objective: Examine ink composition and detect variations.

Method:

• Examination by Video Spectral Comparator (VSC), UV, or IR imaging for ink.
• Changes in absorption characteristics, chemical composition, or shade can be detected.
• Determine whether various inks were used on the same document.

Importance: Aids in proving alterations, additions, or ink substitutions

5. ERASURES & OBLITERATION DETECTION

Objective: Expose deleted or hidden content

Method:

• Using oblique light, detect mechanical erasures (such as scraping and rubbing).
• Use UV-induced variations in fluorescence to detect chemical erasures.
• Use spectral imaging to recover writing that has been erased.

Importance: Restores content that has been purposely erased or obscured.

6. INDENTATION & IMPRESSION ANALYSIS

Objective: Recover hidden writings that have been pressed onto paper

Method:

• Examination by Electrostatic Detection Apparatus (ESDA).
• Recover indentation impressions from either removed entries or earlier writings.

Importance: Aids in determining whether earlier entries were deleted or changed, displays text that has been deleted or replaced, even if it has been physically removed

7. SEQUENCE OF WRITING ANALYSIS

Objective: to determine the order of document entries.

Method:

• Examine stroke overlap by employing ink layering and microscopy.
• Verify whether a signature was added before or following a printed line or entry\
• Ascertain the stroke order, such as whether a signature was written before or after a line or figure.

Importance: Determines whether alterations were added later.

8. PAPER & MATERIAL EXAMINATION

Objective: Confirm the legitimacy of the document and any supporting documentation.

Method:

• Examine the fibres, texture, watermark, and chemical processing.
• Verify whether the age, quality, or place of origin of the paper is consistent or not.

Importance: Detects material mixing or substitution of pages

9. DIGITAL IMAGING & ENHANCEMENT

Objective: Make illegible or changed text more readable

Method:

• Use technologies for forensic imaging and enhancement.
• Restore regions that have been overwritten or faded

Importance: Increases the visibility of obscured or deteriorated text.

10.  COMPARISON WITH STANDARDS

Objective: Verify disputed entries against authentic samples

Method:

• Verify disputed entries against authentic samples.
• Determine any similarities or differences.

Importance: Proves or disproves the legitimacy of the document.

11. DESTRUCTIVE DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

Objective: Conduct physical or chemical testing of a document.

Method:

• Thin-Layer Chromatography (TLC) for comparison and dating of ink.
• Chemical solubility and paper fibre testing.

Importance: Used only when non-destructive means are not enough to provide solid evidence in high-profile disputes.

12. EXPERT INTERPRETATION & REPORTING

Objective: Deliver results in an understandable and legally acceptable manner.

Method:

• Offer an unbiased forensic analysis report
• Provide testimony in court

Importance: Guarantees that the analysis provides accurate and credible support for judicial procedures.

REFERENCES:

• https://forensicdocumentexaminer.com/forensic-examination-techniques-for-document-alterations
• Alteration In Documents – Addition And Overwriting – Forensic’s blog
• https://regulaforensics.com/blog/examining-alterations-in-handwriting/#:~:text=An%20%E2%80%9Calteration%E2%80%9D%20may%20be%20defined,alteration%20may%20be%20considered%20fraudulent.
• Sharma, B. R. (1999). Forensic science in criminal investigation and trials (3rd ed., with supplement). Universal Law Publishing Co.
• Nabar, B. S. (2001). Forensic Science in Crime Investigation (3rd ed.). Asia Law House.